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Grade of computer bugs related to dates outset in the twelvemonth 2000

"January 1, 2000" redirects here. For the date, run across January 2000.

A French electronic sign. It reads, Bienvenue a L'École centrale de Nantes, 12 heures 09, 3 Janvier 1900.

The Year 2000 problem, also known equally the Y2K problem, Millennium bug, Y2K bug, Y2K glitch or Y2K error, refers to potential computer errors related to the formatting and storage of calendar data for dates in and later the year 2000. Many programs represented four-digit years with only the final two digits, making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900. Computer systems' inability to distinguish dates correctly had the potential to bring downward worldwide infrastructures for industries ranging from banking to air travel.

In the years leading up to the plough of the century, the public gradually became aware of the "Y2K scare", and private companies predicted the global damage caused by the bug would crave anything between $400 million and $600 billion to rectify.[ane] A lack of clarity regarding the potential dangers of the bug led some to stock up on food, h2o, and arms, purchase backup generators, and withdraw large sums of money in anticipation of a computer-induced apocalypse.[ii]

Opposite to public expectations, few major errors actually occurred in 2000, primarily due to the pre-emptive action of many computer programmers and information technology experts. Companies and organizations in some countries, simply non all, had checked, stock-still, and upgraded their computer systems to accost the problem.[3] [4] And then–U.S. president Neb Clinton, who organized efforts to minimize the harm in the Us, labeled Y2K as "the first challenge of the 21st century successfully met",[5] and retrospectives on the event typically commend the programmers who worked to avert the predictable disaster.

Groundwork [edit]

Y2K is a numeronym and was the mutual abbreviation for the year 2000 software problem. The abbreviation combines the letter Y for "year", the number two and a capitalized version of k for the SI unit prefix kilo meaning 1000; hence, 2K signifies 2000. It was also named the "Millennium Bug" because it was associated with the popular (rather than literal) rollover of the millennium, even though most of the problems could have occurred at the end of any century.

Computerworld 'southward 1993 iii-page "Doomsday 2000" article by Peter de Jager was called "the information-age equivalent of the midnight ride of Paul Revere" past The New York Times.[half-dozen] [vii] [eight]

The Yr 2000 problem was the subject of the early volume Computers in Crisis past Jerome and Marilyn Murray (Petrocelli, 1984; reissued by McGraw-Colina nether the title The Year 2000 Calculating Crisis in 1996). The first recorded mention of the Year 2000 Problem on a Usenet newsgroup occurred on 18 Jan 1985 by poster Spencer Bolles.[9]

The acronym Y2K has been attributed to Massachusetts programmer David Eddy[10] in an e-mail sent on 12 June 1995. He later said, "People were calling it CDC (Century Date Change), FADL (Faulty Date Logic). At that place were other contenders. Y2K just came off my fingertips."[eleven]

The trouble started because on both mainframe computers and later personal computers, storage was expensive, from every bit low equally $10 per kilobyte, to in many cases as much as or even more than Us$100 per kilobyte.[12] Information technology was therefore very important for programmers to minimize usage. Since programs could just prefix "19" to the twelvemonth of a date, about programs internally used, or stored on disc or tape, information files where the appointment format was vi digits, in the form DDMMYY, DD as two digits for the day, MM as two digits for the calendar month, and YY every bit two digits for the twelvemonth. Too used was the shorter "YYDDD" where DDD was the day number within the twelvemonth. As space on disc and tape was also expensive, these also saved coin by reducing the size of stored data files and databases.[13]

Some programs, when facing 2-digit years, could not distinguish between 2000 and 1900. Dire warnings at times were in the style of:

The Y2K problem is the electronic equivalent of the El Niño and there will be nasty surprises around the globe.

— John Hamre, The states Deputy Secretary of Defense force[14]

Options on the De Jager Twelvemonth 2000 Index, "the first index enabling investors to manage chance associated with the ... computer problem linked to the yr 2000" began trading mid-March 1997.[15]

Special committees were set up by governments to monitor remedial work and contingency planning, particularly past crucial infrastructures such as telecommunications, utilities and the similar, to ensure that the most critical services had stock-still their own problems and were prepared for problems with others. While some commentators and experts argued that the coverage of the trouble largely amounted to scaremongering,[16] it was only the safe passing of the main event itself, 1 January 2000, that fully quelled public fears.

Some experts who argued that scaremongering was occurring, such as Ross Anderson, professor of security technology at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, have since claimed that despite sending out hundreds of press releases about enquiry results suggesting that the trouble was not likely to be every bit large every bit some had suggested, they were largely ignored past the media.[16] In a like vein, the Microsoft Press book Running Role 2000 Professional person, published in May 1999, accurately predicted that virtually personal computer hardware and software would be unaffected by the year 2000 trouble.[17] Authors Michael Halvorson and Michael Young characterized nigh of the worries equally pop hysteria, an opinion echoed by Microsoft Corp.[18]

Programming problem [edit]

The practice of using 2-digit dates for convenience predates computers, but was never a problem until stored dates were used in calculations.

The need for scrap conservation [edit]

I'm one of the culprits who created this trouble. I used to write those programs dorsum in the 1960s and 1970s, and was proud of the fact that I was able to squeeze a few elements of space out of my program by non having to put a 19 earlier the year. Back then, information technology was very important. We used to spend a lot of time running through various mathematical exercises earlier we started to write our programs so that they could exist very conspicuously delimited with respect to space and the utilize of capacity. It never entered our minds that those programs would have lasted for more than a few years. As a consequence, they are very poorly documented. If I were to go back and look at some of the programs I wrote 30 years ago, I would have one terribly difficult fourth dimension working my way through step-by-pace.

—Alan Greenspan, 1998[19]

Business organisation data processing was done using unit record equipment and punched cards, nearly commonly the eighty-column diversity employed by IBM, which dominated the industry. Many tricks were used to squeeze needed data into fixed-field 80-graphic symbol records. Saving two digits for every date field was significant in this attempt.

In the 1960s, computer retention and mass storage were deficient and expensive. Early on core memory cost one dollar per flake. Popular commercial computers, such every bit the IBM 1401, shipped with as niggling every bit 2 kilobytes of memory.[a] Programs oft mimicked card processing techniques. Commercial programming languages of the time, such every bit COBOL and RPG, processed numbers in their character representations. Over time, the punched cards were converted to magnetic tape and and then disc files, but the structure of the data ordinarily changed very little.

Information was still input using punched cards until the mid-1970s. Machine architectures, programming languages and application designs were evolving apace. Neither managers nor programmers of that time expected their programs to remain in use for many decades, and the possibility that these programs would both remain in utilise and cause issues when interacting with databases - a new type of programme with different characteristics - went largely uncommented upon.

Early attention [edit]

The offset person known to publicly address this effect was Bob Bemer, who had noticed information technology in 1958 as a result of work on genealogical software. He spent the next twenty years trying to brand programmers, IBM, the government of the The states and the International System for Standardization aware of the problem, with niggling result. This included the recommendation that the COBOL film clause should exist used to specify 4 digit years for dates.[21]

In the 1980s, the brokerage industry began to address this effect, mostly considering of bonds with maturity dates beyond the year 2000. By 1987 the New York Stock Exchange had reportedly spent over $20 million, including "a squad of 100" programmers on Y2K.[22]

Despite mag manufactures on the field of study from 1970 onward, the majority of programmers and managers but started recognising Y2K as a looming problem in the mid-1990s, merely even so, inertia and complacency acquired information technology to be mostly unresolved until the terminal few years of the decade. In 1989, Erik Naggum was instrumental in ensuring that net mail service used 4 digit representations of years past including a strong recommendation to this effect in the internet host requirements document RFC 1123.[23] On April Fools' Solar day of 1998, some companies set their mainframe computer dates to 2001, so that "the wrong date volition exist perceived every bit good fun instead of bad computing" while having a full day of testing.[24]

While using three digit years and iii digit dates within that year was used by some, others chose to use the number of days since a fixed date, such as i January 1900.[25] Inaction was not an selection, and risked major failure. Embedded systems with like engagement logic were expected to malfunction and cause utilities and other crucial infrastructure to neglect.

Saving space on stored dates persisted into the Unix era, with most systems representing dates to a unmarried 32-bit discussion, typically representing dates as elapsed seconds from some fixed date, which causes the similar Y2K38 trouble.

Resulting bugs from appointment programming [edit]

Webpage screenshots showing the JavaScript .getYear() method problem, which depicts the Year 2000 problem

Storage of a combined date and time within a fixed binary field is often considered a solution, but the possibility for software to misinterpret dates remains because such date and time representations must be relative to some known origin. Rollover of such systems is still a problem but tin happen at varying dates and can fail in diverse ways. For example:

  • An upscale grocer's 1997 credit-card acquired crash of their ten cash registers, repeatedly, due to year 2000 expiration dates, and was the source of the first Y2K-related lawsuit.[26]
  • The Microsoft Excel spreadsheet plan had a very elementary Y2K problem: Excel (in both Windows and Mac versions, when they are fix to showtime at 1900) incorrectly set the yr 1900 as a jump year for compatibility with Lotus 1-two-3.[27] In addition, the years 2100, 2200, and and then on, were regarded as leap years. This issues was stock-still in later on versions, just since the epoch of the Excel timestamp was set to the meaningless date of 0 January 1900 in previous versions, the twelvemonth 1900 is however regarded as a leap year to maintain astern compatibility.
  • In the C programming linguistic communication, the standard library part to excerpt the year from a timestamp returns the year minus 1900. Many programs using functions from C, such as Perl and Coffee, two programming languages widely used in web evolution, incorrectly treated this value as the terminal two digits of the twelvemonth. On the web this was usually a harmless presentation problems, but it did crusade many dynamically generated web pages to display 1 Jan 2000 equally "1/1/19100", "1/1/100", or other variants, depending on the display format.[ citation needed ]
  • JavaScript was changed due to concerns over the Y2K issues, and the return value for years inverse and thus differed between versions from sometimes beingness a iv digit representation and sometimes a ii-digit representation forcing programmers to rewrite already working code to make sure web pages worked for all versions.[28] [29]
  • Older applications written for the commonly used UNIX Source Code Control System failed to handle years that began with the digit "ii".
  • In the Windows 3.x file manager, dates displayed every bit 1/1/19:0 for i/1/2000 (because the colon is the grapheme after "9" in the ASCII character set). An update was bachelor.
  • Some software, such every bit Math Blaster Episode I: In Search of Spot which merely treats years as ii-digit values instead of four, volition give a given year as "1900", "1901", and and so on, depending on the last two digits of the present year.

Date bugs similar to Y2K [edit]

4 January 1975 [edit]

The engagement of 4 Jan 1975 overflowed the 12-fleck field that had been used in the Decsystem ten operating systems. In that location were numerous bug and crashes related to this bug while an alternative format was adult.[30]

ix September 1999 [edit]

Fifty-fifty before i January 2000 arrived, in that location were also some worries virtually 9 September 1999 (albeit less than those generated by Y2K). Because this engagement could also be written in the numeric format 9/9/99, it could have conflicted with the engagement value 9999, frequently used to specify an unknown engagement. It was thus possible that database programs might act on the records containing unknown dates on that day. Data entry operators commonly entered 9999 into required fields for an unknown futurity engagement, (east.g., a termination engagement for cable television receiver or telephone service), in order to process computer forms using CICS software.[31] Somewhat similar to this is the end-of-file code 9999, used in older programming languages. While fears arose that some programs might unexpectedly terminate on that date, the bug was more than likely to misfile computer operators than machines.

Leap years [edit]

Normally, a twelvemonth is a bound year if information technology is evenly divisible past 4. A twelvemonth divisible by 100, yet, is non a leap year in the Gregorian calendar unless information technology is also divisible by 400. For example, 1600 was a spring yr, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. Some programs may take relied on the oversimplified rule that "a yr divisible past four is a leap year". This method works fine for the year 2000 (because it is a leap year), and will not become a problem until 2100, when older legacy programs will probable take long since been replaced. Other programs contained incorrect leap year logic, assuming for instance that no year divisible by 100 could be a leap twelvemonth. An assessment of this spring year trouble including a number of existent life lawmaking fragments appeared in 1998.[32] For information on why century years are treated differently, run across Gregorian calendar.

Year 2010 problem [edit]

Some systems had problems one time the year rolled over to 2010. This was dubbed past some in the media as the "Y2K+10" or "Y2.01K" problem.[33]

The main source of issues was defoliation between hexadecimal number encoding and binary-coded decimal encodings of numbers. Both hexadecimal and BCD encode the numbers 0–nine as 0x0–0x9. However, BCD encodes the number 10 as 0x10, whereas hexadecimal encodes the number 10 as 0x0A; 0x10 interpreted as a hexadecimal encoding represents the number 16.

For example, considering the SMS protocol uses BCD for dates, some mobile phone software incorrectly reported dates of SMSes as 2016 instead of 2010. Windows Mobile is the first software reported to accept been afflicted by this glitch; in some cases WM6 changes the appointment of any incoming SMS message sent after i January 2010 from the year 2010 to 2016.[34] [35]

Other systems afflicted include EFTPOS terminals,[36] and the PlayStation iii (except the Slim model).[37]

The nearly of import occurrences of such a glitch were in Germany, where upwards of 20 one thousand thousand bank cards became unusable, and with Citibank Belgium, whose digipass customer identification chips failed.[38]

Year 2022 problem [edit]

Known as the Y2K22 bug. The maximum value of a signed 32-bit integer, equally used in many computer systems, is 2147483647. Systems using an integer to represent a 10 character date-based field, where the leftmost 2 characters are the 2-digit twelvemonth, ran into an upshot on ane January 2022 when the leftmost characters needed to exist '22', i.e. values from 2200000001 needed to be represented.

Microsoft'south Exchange server was one of the most famous and significant systems affected past the Y22 bug. The trouble caused emails to be stuck on ship queues on Exchange Server 2016 and Exchange Server 2019, reporting the post-obit mistake: "The FIP-FS "Microsoft" Scan Engine failed to load. PID: 23092, Error Code: 0x80004005. Mistake Description: Can't convert "2201010001" to long." [39]

Twelvemonth 2038 problem [edit]

Many systems use Unix fourth dimension and store it in a signed 32-fleck integer. This data blazon is just capable of representing integers between −(231) and (two31)−1, treated as number of seconds since the epoch at 1 January 1970 at 00:00:00 UTC. These systems can just represent times between 13 Dec 1901 at 20:45:52 UTC and 19 Jan 2038 at 03:14:07 UTC. If these systems are non stock-still, they volition deport similar it is the yr 1901 beginning at 03:fourteen:08 UTC on nineteen January 2038.

Programming solutions [edit]

Several very different approaches were used to solve the Year 2000 problem in legacy systems. Six of them follow:

Engagement expansion
Two-digit years were expanded to include the century (condign four-digit years) in programs, files, and databases. This was considered the "purest" solution, resulting in unambiguous dates that are permanent and easy to maintain. Yet, this method was costly, requiring massive testing and conversion efforts, and commonly affecting entire systems.
Date windowing
Two-digit years were retained, and programs determined the century value only when needed for particular functions, such equally date comparisons and calculations. (The century "window" refers to the 100-year period to which a engagement belongs.) This technique, which required installing small patches of code into programs, was simpler to test and implement than date expansion, thus much less plush. While not a permanent solution, windowing fixes were usually designed to work for many decades. This was thought acceptable, every bit older legacy systems tend to somewhen go replaced by newer engineering science.[twoscore]
Date compression
Dates can be compressed into binary xiv-bit numbers. This allows retention of data structure alignment, using an integer value for years. Such a scheme is capable of representing 16384 different years; the verbal scheme varies by the selection of epoch.
Date re-sectionalisation
In legacy databases whose size could non be economically inverse, six-digit yr/calendar month/day codes were converted to iii-digit years (with 1999 represented every bit 099 and 2001 represented as 101, etc.) and iii-digit days (ordinal engagement in yr). Just input and output instructions for the engagement fields had to be modified, just most other date operations and whole record operations required no change. This delays the eventual whorl-over problem to the cease of the year 2899.
Software kits
Software kits, such equally those listed in CNN.com'south Summit 10 Y2K fixes for your PC:[41] ("about ... free") which was topped past the $50 Millennium Bug Kit.[42] [43]
Bridge programs
Engagement servers where Call statements are used to access, add or update date fields.[44] [45] [46]

Documented errors [edit]

Earlier 2000 [edit]

  • On 1 Jan 1999, taxi meters in Singapore stopped working, while in Sweden, wrong taxi fares were given.[47]
  • On 28 December 1999, 10,000 card swipe machines issued by HSBC and manufactured by Racal stopped processing credit and debit card transactions.[16] The stores relied on paper transactions until the machines started working again on 1 January.[48]

On 1 January 2000 [edit]

When 1 January 2000 arrived, at that place were problems by and large regarded every bit minor.[49] Consequences did not always consequence exactly at midnight. Some programs were not agile at that moment and issues would only prove up when they were invoked. Not all problems recorded were directly linked to Y2K programming in a causality; pocket-size technological glitches occur on a regular basis.

Reported problems include:

  • In Australia, bus ticket validation machines in ii states failed to operate.[49]
  • In Ishikawa, Japan, radiations monitoring equipment failed at midnight; all the same, officials stated there was no risk to the public.[l]
  • In Onagawa, Japan, an alarm sounded at a nuclear power plant at ii minutes later midnight.[50]
  • In Japan, at 2 minutes past midnight, the telecommunications carrier Osaka Media Port institute errors in the date direction function of the company'due south network. The trouble was fixed by 02:43 and no services were disrupted.[51]
  • In Nippon, NTT Mobile Communications Network (NTT Docomo), Japan's largest cellular operator, reported that some models of mobile telephones were deleting new messages received, rather than the older messages, as the memory filled up.[51]
  • In France, the national weather forecasting service, Météo-French republic, said a Y2K bug made the date on a webpage show a map with Sat'south atmospheric condition forecast as "01/01/19100".[49]
  • In Sheffield, Uk, a Y2K bug caused miscalculation of the mothers' historic period and sent incorrect risk assessments for Down's syndrome to 154 significant women. Equally a straight effect two abortions were carried out, and four babies with Down's syndrome were also built-in to mothers who had been told they were in the low-take chances group.[52]
  • In the United states of america, the Us Naval Observatory, which runs the master clock that keeps the country's official time, gave the appointment on its website as 1 January 19100.[53]
  • In the United States, every bit a direct upshot of the Y2K glitch, at midnight computers at a ground control station ceased processing information from an unspecified number of spy satellites. The military implemented a contingency plan by 03:00 am, and restored all normal functionality in approximately two days.[54]
  • In the United States, 150 Delaware Lottery racino slot machines stopped working.[49]

After January 2000 [edit]

On 1 March 2000 [edit]

Issues were reported on 1 March 2000, which followed Y2K's first Leap Year Solar day,[55] but these were mostly minor.[56]

  • In Nihon, around five per centum of mail function greenbacks dispensers failed to piece of work and data from weather agency computers was corrupted.
  • In Bulgaria, police documents were issued with expiration dates of 29 February 2005 and 29 Feb 2010 (which are not leap years) and the arrangement defaulted to 1900.[57]
  • In the United States, the Coast Guard's message processing arrangement was affected.
  • At Reagan National Airport, check-in lines lengthened after baggage handling programs were affected.
  • At Offutt Air Force Base of operations south of Omaha, Nebraska, records of aircraft maintenance parts could not be accessed.

On 31 December 2000 or 1 Jan 2001 [edit]

Some software did not correctly recognise 2000 as a leap twelvemonth, and so worked on the footing of the year having 365 days. On the concluding day of 2000 (day 366) these systems exhibited various errors. These were generally minor.

  • In Norway, some trains were delayed until their clocks were put back past a month.[58]
  • A "Y2K-similar bug" affected a New York City government wireless system that was down for ten days because of a GPS organisation's appointment-rollover problem.[59] [60] Infrastructure affected included "traffic lights, license-plate readers used by cops and other key functions."

Since and then [edit]

In addition to the Yr 2000 problem, various problems take occurred due to errors involving overflows. A specific issue with time formatting caused the destruction of the NASA Deep Impact spacecraft. Information technology tracked fourth dimension in one-tenth of a second increments, and then was lost on eleven August 2013 at 00:38:49 when its internal clock reached exactly 232 tenths of a seconds since 1 January 2000, the time value being stored in a signed 32-bit integer which overflowed on the date and at the time in question.

Some software used a process chosen date windowing to gear up the issue past interpreting years 00-nineteen as 2000-2019 and 20-99 as 1920–1999. Equally a result, a new wave of problems started appearing in 2020, including parking meters in New York City refusing to accept credit cards, issues with Novitus signal of sale units, and some utility companies printing bills listing the year 1920.[61]

Regime responses [edit]

Bulgaria [edit]

Although just two digits are allocated for the birth year in the Bulgarian national identification number, the year 1900 problem and subsequently the Y2K problem were addressed by the apply of unused values above 12 in the calendar month range. For all persons born earlier 1900, the month is stored as the calendar month plus 20, and for all persons built-in afterward 1999, the month is stored as the month plus 40.[62]

Canada [edit]

Canadian Prime Government minister Jean Chrétien'due south most important chiffonier ministers were ordered to remain in the capital Ottawa, and gathered at 24 Sussex Bulldoze, the prime minister'south residence, to lookout man the clock.[6] 13,000 Canadian troops were besides put on standby.[vi]

Netherlands [edit]

The Dutch Authorities promoted Y2K Information Sharing and Analysis Centers (ISACs) to share readiness between industries, without threat of antitrust violations or liability based on information shared.[ citation needed ]

Norway and Republic of finland [edit]

Norway and Finland changed their national identification number, to indicate the century in which a person was born. In both countries, the birth year was historically indicated by two digits only. This numbering system had already given ascent to a similar problem, the "Year 1900 problem", which arose due to problems distinguishing between people born in the 20th and 19th centuries. Y2K fears drew attention to an older issue, while prompting a solution to a new problem. In Finland, the trouble was solved by replacing the hyphen ("-") in the number with the letter of the alphabet "A" for people born in the 21st century (for people built-in before 1900, the sign was already "+").[63] In Norway, the range of the individual numbers post-obit the nascency date was contradistinct from 0–499 to 500–999.[ citation needed ]

Romania [edit]

Romania too changed its national identification number in response to the Y2K trouble, due to the birth year being represented by only ii digits. Before 2000, the first digit, which shows the person's gender, was 1 for males and 2 for females. Starting from 1 January 2000, the Romanian national identification number starts with v for males and 6 for females.[ citation needed ]

Uganda [edit]

The Ugandan government responded to the Y2K threat by setting up a Y2K Task Force.[64] In August 1999 an independent international assessment past the World Bank International Y2k Cooperation Centre constitute that Republic of uganda's website was in the top category as "highly informative". This put Republic of uganda in the "top 20" out of 107 national governments, and on a par with the United States, U.k., Canada, Australia and Japan, and alee of Frg, Italian republic, Austria, Switzerland which were rated equally just "somewhat informative". The report said that "Countries which disclose more Y2K data volition be more likely to maintain public conviction in their own countries and in the international markets."[65]

United Kingdom [edit]

The British government made regular assessments of the progress made past unlike sectors of business concern towards becoming Y2K-compliant and there was wide reporting of sectors which were laggards. Companies and institutions were classified according to a traffic light scheme ranging from green "no problems" to ruby "grave doubts whether the work can be finished in fourth dimension". Many organisations finished far ahead of the deadline.[ citation needed ]

U.s.a. [edit]

In 1998, the Usa authorities responded to the Y2K threat by passing the Twelvemonth 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act, past working with private sector counterparts in order to ensure readiness, and by creating internal continuity of operations plans in the effect of issues and set limits to sure potential liabilities of companies with respect to disclosures about their Year 2000 program.[66] [67] The effort was coordinated by the President'south Council on Year 2000 Conversion, headed by John Koskinen, in coordination with the and so-independent Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and an interim Critical Infrastructure Protection Group, so in the Department of Justice, now in Homeland Security.[68] [69]

The US government followed a three-role approach to the problem: (1) outreach and advancement, (ii) monitoring and assessment, and (3) contingency planning and regulation.[70]

The logo created by The President's Council on the Year 2000 Conversion, for use on Y2K.gov

A feature of United states of america regime outreach was Y2K websites including Y2K.GOV, many of which have become inaccessible in the years since 2000. Some of these websites have been archived past the National Archives and Records Administration or the Wayback Machine.[71] [72]

Each federal agency had its own Y2K job force which worked with its private sector counterparts; the FCC had the FCC Year 2000 Task Force.[seventy] [73]

Near industries had contingency plans that relied upon the net for backup communications. Yet, as no federal agency had clear authority with regard to the cyberspace at this time (it had passed from the US Department of Defense force to the United states National Science Foundation and then to the Usa Department of Commerce), no agency was assessing the readiness of the net itself. Therefore, on 30 July 1999, the White House held the White Firm Internet Y2K Roundtable.[74]

The U.S. government also established the Center for Year 2000 Strategic Stability as a joint operation with the Russian Federation. It was a liaison performance designed to mitigate the possibility of false positive readings in each nation'southward nuclear assault early on warning systems.[75]

A CD marking its software as Y2K Complaint

Juno Internet Service Provider CD labeling Y2K-compliance

International cooperation [edit]

The International Y2K Cooperation Middle (IY2KCC) was established at the behest of national Y2K coordinators from over 120 countries when they met at the Starting time Global Meeting of National Y2K Coordinators at the Un in December 1998.[76] IY2KCC established an office in Washington, D.C. in March 1999. Funding was provided past the Globe Bank, and Bruce West. McConnell was appointed as director.

IY2KCC'south mission was to "promote increased strategic cooperation and action amid governments, peoples, and the private sector to minimize adverse Y2K furnishings on the global lodge and economy." Activities of IY2KCC were conducted in six areas:

  • National Readiness: Promoting Y2K programs worldwide
  • Regional Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination within defined geographic areas
  • Sector Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination within and across defined economic sectors
  • Continuity and Response Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination to ensure essential services and provisions for emergency response
  • Information Cooperation: Promoting and supporting international information sharing and publicity
  • Facilitation and Assistance: Organizing global meetings of Y2K coordinators and to identify resources

IY2KCC airtight down in March 2000.[76]

Private sector response [edit]

  • The Us established the Year 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act, which express the liability of businesses who had properly disclosed their Y2K readiness.
  • Insurance companies sold insurance policies roofing failure of businesses due to Y2K problems.
  • Attorneys organised and mobilised for Y2K class action lawsuits (which were not pursued).[77]
  • Survivalist-related businesses (gun dealers, surplus and sporting goods) anticipated increased business in the terminal months of 1999 in an event known as the Y2K scare.[78]
  • The Long Now Foundation, which (in their words) "seeks to promote 'slower/ameliorate' thinking and to foster creativity in the framework of the side by side 10,000 years", has a policy of anticipating the Year ten,000 problem by writing all years with five digits. For example, they list "01996" equally their year of founding.
  • While at that place was no i comprehensive internet Y2K effort, multiple internet trade associations and organisations banded together to form the Internet Twelvemonth 2000 Campaign.[79] This endeavour partnered with the White Firm's Cyberspace Y2K Roundtable.

The Y2K issue was a major topic of word in the late 1990s and as such showed up in about popular media. A number of "Y2K disaster" books were published such as Borderline Y2K by Mark Joseph. Movies such every bit Y2K: Year to Kill capitalised on the currency of Y2K, as did numerous TV shows, comic strips, and computer games.

Fringe group responses [edit]

A variety of fringe groups and individuals such equally those within some fundamentalist religious organizations, survivalists, cults, anti-social movements, self-sufficiency enthusiasts, communes and those attracted to conspiracy theories, embraced Y2K as a tool to engender fright and provide a form of testify for their respective theories. Finish-of-the-world scenarios and apocalyptic themes were common in their communication.

Interest in the survivalist movement peaked in 1999 in its 2d wave for that decade, triggered by Y2K fears. In the time earlier extensive efforts were fabricated to rewrite computer programming codes to mitigate the possible impacts, some writers such as Gary North, Ed Yourdon, James Howard Kunstler,[lxxx] and Ed Yardeni anticipated widespread power outages, food and gasoline shortages, and other emergencies. North and others raised the alarm because they idea Y2K code fixes were not being fabricated quickly enough. While a range of authors responded to this wave of business organization, ii of the nearly survival-focused texts to emerge were Boston on Y2K (1998) by Kenneth W. Royce, and Mike Oehler's The Hippy Survival Guide to Y2K.

Y2K was besides exploited past some fundamentalist and charismatic Christian leaders throughout the Western world, particularly in Northward America and Australia.[81] Their promotion of the perceived risks of Y2K was combined with end times thinking and apocalyptic prophecies in an endeavour to influence followers.[81] The New York Times reported in late 1999, "The Rev. Jerry Falwell suggested that Y2K would exist the confirmation of Christian prophecy — God'southward instrument to milk shake this nation, to humble this nation. The Y2K crisis might incite a worldwide revival that would lead to the rapture of the church. Forth with many survivalists, Mr. Falwell advised stocking up on nutrient and guns".[82] Adherents in these movements were encouraged to engage in food hoarding, accept lessons in self-sufficiency, and the more extreme elements planned for a total collapse of modern society. The Chicago Tribune reported that some big fundamentalist churches, motivated by Y2K, were the sites for flea market place-like sales of paraphernalia designed to help people survive a social social club crunch ranging from gold coins to woods-burning stoves.[83] Betsy Hart, writing for the Deseret News, reported that a lot of the more extreme evangelicals used Y2K to promote a political agenda in which downfall of the regime was a desired issue in order to usher in Christ'southward reign. She also noted that, "the common cold truth is that preaching anarchy is profitable and calm doesn't sell many tapes or books".[84] These types of fears and conspiracies were described dramatically by New Zealand-based Christian prophetic author and preacher Barry Smith in his publication, "I Spy with my Little Eye", where he dedicated a whole chapter to Y2K.[85] Some expected, at times through so-chosen prophecies, that Y2K would be the commencement of a worldwide Christian revival.[86]

It became articulate in the aftermath that leaders of these fringe groups had cleverly used fears of apocalyptic outcomes to manipulate followers into dramatic scenes of mass repentance or renewed commitment to their groups, boosted giving of funds and more overt commitment to their respective organizations or churches. The Baltimore Sun noted this in their article, "Apocalypse Now — Y2K spurs fears", where they reported the increased call for repentance in the populace in order to avoid God's wrath.[87] Christian leader, Col Stringer, in his commentary has published, "Fear-creating writers sold over 45 one thousand thousand books citing every believable catastrophe from civil state of war, planes dropping from the sky to the stop of the civilised globe every bit we know it. Reputable preachers were advocating food storage and a "caput for the caves" mentality. No banks failed, no planes crashed, no wars or civil war started. And nonetheless not one of these prophets of doom has ever apologised for their scare-mongering tactics."[86] Some prominent N American Christian ministries and leaders generated huge personal and corporate profits through sales of Y2K training kits, generators, survival guides, published prophecies and a broad range of other associated merchandise. Christian journalist, Rob Boston, has documented this[81] in his article "False Prophets, Real Profits — Religious Correct Leaders' Wild Predictions of Y2K Disaster Didn't Come Truthful, Just They Made Money Anyway".

Cost [edit]

The total cost of the work done in preparation for Y2K[88] is estimated at[89] over Us$300 billion ($472 billion equally of Jan 2018, in one case inflation is taken into business relationship).[90] [91] IDC calculated that the US spent an estimated $134 billion ($211 billion) preparing for Y2K, and another $xiii billion ($20 billion) fixing problems in 2000 and 2001. Worldwide, $308 billion ($485 billion) was estimated to have been spent on Y2K remediation.[92]

Arrangement of the remedial work [edit]

The remedial work was driven by customer demand for solutions.[88] Software suppliers, mindful of their potential legal liability,[77] responded with remedial attempt. Software subcontractors were required to certify that their software components were free of date-related problems, which drove further work down the supply concatenation.

Past 1999, many corporations required their suppliers to certify,[91] often on their own variation of a bones form, that all of their software is Y2K compliant.[ citation needed ] Some merely accepted remedial updates and and then signed. Many businesses or even whole countries who spent piddling effort themselves nonetheless suffered only minor problems.

Results [edit]

There are ii means to view the events of 2000 from the perspective of its aftermath:

Supporting view [edit]

This view holds that the vast bulk of problems were fixed correctly, and the money spent was at least partially justified. The situation was essentially i of preemptive alarm. Those who hold this view merits that the lack of problems at the date change reflects the completeness of the projection, and that many computer applications would not have continued to role into the 21st century without correction or remediation.

  • Expected problems that were not seen by small-scale businesses and small-scale organisations were in fact prevented by Y2K fixes embedded in routine updates to operating organization and utility software[93] that were applied several years before 31 December 1999.
  • The extent to which larger manufacture and government fixes averted issues that would take more significant impacts had they not been fixed, were typically non disclosed or widely reported.[94] [ unreliable source? ]
  • Information technology has also been suggested that on xi September 2001, infrastructure in New York Metropolis (including subways, telephone service, and financial transactions) was able to continue functioning because of the redundant networks established in the event of Y2K bug impact[95] and the contingency plans devised past companies.[96] The terrorist attacks and the following prolonged blackout to lower Manhattan had minimal outcome on global cyberbanking systems.[97] Fill-in systems were activated at diverse locations around the region, many of which had been established to deal with a possible complete failure of networks in Manhattan's Financial Commune on 31 December 1999.[98]

Opposing view [edit]

The contrary view asserts that there were no, or very few, disquisitional problems to begin with. This view also asserts that there would have been merely a few minor mistakes and that a "fix on failure" arroyo would have been the virtually efficient and cost-effective way to solve these problems as they occurred.

  • Countries such as South korea and Italian republic invested little to zip in Y2K remediation,[99] all the same had the aforementioned negligible Y2K problems as countries that spent enormous sums of money.[100]
  • The lack of Y2K-related issues in schools, many of which undertook little or no remediation effort. Past 1 September 1999, only 28% of The states schools had accomplished compliance for mission disquisitional systems, and a authorities written report predicted that "Y2K failures could very well plague the computers used by schools to manage payrolls, pupil records, online curricula, and building prophylactic systems".[101]
  • The lack of Y2K-related problems in an estimated one.five one thousand thousand small businesses that undertook no remediation effort. On three Jan 2000 (the showtime weekday of the yr), the Pocket-size Business concern Administration received an estimated forty calls from businesses with computer issues, similar to the average. None of the problems were disquisitional.[102]
  • The absence of Y2K-related problems occurring before one January 2000, even though the 2000 financial year commenced in 1999 in many jurisdictions, and a wide range of forward-looking calculations involved dates in 2000 and later years. Estimates undertaken in the leadup to 2000 suggested that effectually 25% of all issues should take occurred earlier 2000.[103] Critics of large-scale remediation argued during 1999 that the absence of significant reported problems in not-compliant small firms was show that there had been, and would be, no serious problems needing to be fixed in whatsoever business firm, and that the scale of the problem had therefore been severely overestimated.[104] Nonetheless, this can be countered with the observation that large companies had significant problems requiring action, that Y2K programmers were fully enlightened of the variable timescale, and that they were working to a series of before target dates, rather than a single fixed target of 31 December 1999.[94]

Counterpoint [edit]

A counterpoint to most of the opposing view points in a higher place is that Y2K software updates were frequently sent to all users regardless of their active participation in the remediation.[105] [106] However, this does not explicate why the proprietary software systems in South Korea, Russia, and Italy that underwent no Y2K remediation had no more than technological issues than those in countries that spent enormous amounts of money on targeted remediation not covered past generalized patches to underlying organisation software.[107]

See too [edit]

  • 512k twenty-four hour period: an consequence in 2014, involving a software limitation in network routers
  • IPv4 address burnout, problems caused by the limited resource allotment size for numeric internet addresses
  • ISO 8601, an international standard for representing dates and times, which mandates the use of (at least) 4 digits for the yr
  • "Life's a Glitch, Then You Die" is a "Treehouse of Horror segment" from The Simpsons eleventh season. The segment sees Homer forget to make his visitor's computers Y2K-compliant and this caused a virus to exist unleashed upon the earth
  • Perpetual calendar, a calendar valid for many years, including before and after 2000
  • Y2K, a 1999 American fabricated-for-television science fiction-thriller moving picture directed past Dick Lowry
  • YEAR2000, a configuration setting supported by some versions of DR-DOS to overcome Year 2000 BIOS bugs

Explanatory notes [edit]

  1. ^ The proper noun 'IBM' 1401 reflected the smallest corporeality of memory: 1,400 characters.[20]

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

  • Middle for Y2K and Society Records, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Documents activities of Centre for Y2K and Society (based in Washington, D.C.) working with non-profit institutions and foundations to answer to possible societal impacts of the Y2K computer problem: helping the poor and vulnerable besides equally protecting human being wellness and the environment. Records donated by executive manager, Norman L. Dean.
  • International Y2K Cooperation Centre Records, 1998–2000, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Collection contains the materials of the International Y2K Cooperation Centre. Includes land reports, news clippings, land questionnaires, country telephone directories, background materials, sound visual materials and papers of Bruce W. McConnell, manager of IY2KCC.
  • Preparing for an Apocalypse: Y2K, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. A web showroom curated by Stephanie H. Crowe
  • BBC: Y2K coverage
  • In The Beginning in that location Was the Nerd – BBC Radio documentary about the history of computers and the millennium bug 10 years after using archival recordings.
  • The Surprising Legacy of Y2K – Radio documentary by American Public Media, on the history and legacy of the millennium bug 5 years on.
  • The Yawn of a New Millennium
  • CBC Digital Archives – The Eve of the Millennium
  • How the U.k. coped with the millennium bug
  • "Fourth dimension running out for PCs at big companies"—CNN

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_2000_problem

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